Stains

Hematoxylin and eosin stain of benign prostate gland.

This article deals with stains. The H&E stain is only one of many stains that are used in pathology.

Non-H&E stains are often referred to as special stains.

Where to start...

Principles

When considering additional (i.e. special) stains one should (in order) do the following:[1]

  1. Make sure one has exhausted the clinical history; history is considered the best special stain.
  2. Special stains (below).
  3. Immunohistochemistry (dealt with in a separate article).
  4. Molecular testing, electron microscopy.

Common stains

  1. H&E stain.
  2. PAS stain.
  3. PAS-D stain.
  4. AFB stains, e.g. Ziehl-Neelsen stain.
  5. Congo red.
  6. GMS stain.
  7. Gram stain.

Immunohistochemistry

Main article: Immunohistochemistry

General

  • Abbreviated IHC.

Interpretation

Simple version:

  • Positive is (usually): brown.
  • Negative tissue is: light blue.

Important notes:

  • One has to know where the target (of the antibody) is supposed to be, i.e. cytoplasm vs. cell membrane.
  • The edge of the tissue may have light staining - edge effect.
  • If everything is brown... suspect that it didn't work.
  • In some situations you're blessed with an internal control, e.g. in renal tumours CD10 will stain RCC and the proximal tubule, in GISTs - CD117 the mast cells are positive.

Work-up of infection

It often not possible to be definitive by staining.[2]

Basic panel:

  • Gram stain - for bacteria.
  • GMS stain - fungal stain.
  • PAS (or PAS-D) - fungal stain.

Fungi

Main article: Fungi

Fungi are a type of microorganisms. They are seen by pathologist every once in a while.

Specific stains

What follows is a big list... of stains.

Haematoxylin and eosin stain

  • Abbreviated H&E.
Main article: Hematoxylin and eosin stain

Haematoxylin phyloxin saffron stain

General

  • Abbreviated HPS.
  • An alternative to the H&E stain - some pathol. departments use this as their standard.

Interpretation

  • Haematoxylin = blue -- stains nucleus.
  • Phyloxin = pink -- stains muscle and cytoplasm.
  • Saffron = yellow -- stains collagen.
  • An alternative to H&E stain.
    • Fibrosis is easier to see on HPS than H&E... as one can see the collagen.

Images

  • Perineural invasion - prostate - HPS stain (WC)

  • Meningioma - HPS stain (WC)

  • Endoneurial fibrosis - HPS stain (WC)

Periodic acid Schiff stain

  • Abbreviated PAS.

Primary application

  • Kidney biopsies, medical.
  • Liver biopsies, medical.
    • Positive in alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency.

Utility

  • Stains - lipofuscin,[3] basement membranes, fungi, glycogen, (neutral) mucin.

Interpretation

  • Magenta = glycogen, mucin, fungi.
  • Blue = nuclei.

Ref.:[4]

Image

  • Metanephric adenoma - PAS (WC)

  • Liver biopsy with glycogen storage disease - PAS (WC)

  • Esophageal candidiasis - PAS (WC)

Periodic acid Schiff fungal stain

  • Abbreviated PASF.

Primary application

Interpretation

  • Light purple = fungi.
  • Light green = background.
  • Washed-out light purple = Gram positive bacilli.

Note:

  • This is much improved over the PAS in the context of skin, as the background is similar to the fungal organisms.

  • Fungal organisms. PASF stain.

Periodic acid Schiff with diastase

  • Abbreviated: PAS-D and PASD.

General

  • Diastase digests the glycogen.
  • "PAS diastase resistant"[5] implies PASD +ve and PAS +ve.

Use

  • Stains mucin.
  • Used to identify glycogen (together with PAS stain).
    • Glycogen = clear (digested) on PAS-D.
    • Glycogen = magenta on PAS.

Notes: [6]

Interpretation

  • Light purple = fungi.
  • Light blue/pink = background. ???

Gomori methenamine-silver stain

  • Abbreviated GMS.

Note:

  • GMS is "Grocott's methenamine Silver" according to WMSP.[7]

Use

Image

  • GMS showing histoplasma (WC/Nephron)

Acid-fast bacilli stains

  • Abbreviated: AFB.

There are several AFB stains:

Ziehl-Neelsen stain

  • Most popular acid-fast bacilli stain.
  • Stains other mycobacteria -- not specific for tuberculosis.
    • Stains Nocardia.[10]

Image

  • ZN stain. (WC/CDC)

Fite stain

Interpretation:

  • Red = AFB.
  • Blue = background.

Auramine-rhodamine stain

  • Fluorescent stain.

Image

  • AR stain. (WC/CDC)

Kinyoun stain

Congo red stain

Use

  • Used to look for amyloid.
    • Mnemonic: CRAP = congo red amyloid protein.
  • An alternate stain for amyloid is Thioflavin T.

Note:

  • Thick sections (~10 micrometers) are considered a requirement for the stain to work properly.[13]
    • If the section is too thin... it doesn't work.

Interpretation

  • Amyloid = pink/red.
  • Nuclei = blue.

Ref.:[14]

Image

Thioflavin T stain

Use

Interpretation

  • Amyloid = green.

Image: Amyloid (inano.au.dk).

Gram stain

Use

  • "It is useless for finding bacteria."[15]
    • If they are to be seen... they'll be visible on H&E.

Note:

  • Microbiology is better at finding organisms than pathology.
    • They have one significant advantage -- if a small amount of bugs are present... they grows into a large (obviously visible) colony.

DDx for common patterns

A short list of bacteria and their characteristics:[16]

Shape\Gram stain Positive Negative Variable or negative
Bacilli Clostridium difficile, Bacillus anthracis, Nocardia spp. Escherichia coli, Helicobacter pylori, Yersinia pestis, Hemophilus influenzae Mycobacterium tuberulosis, Legionella pneumophila[17]
Cocci Streptococcus pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus Neisseria meningitidis, Moraxella catarrhalis

Interpretation

  • Purple (or blue) = Gram positive organisms.
  • Red = Gram negative organisms, nuclei.[18]
  • Yellow = background.

Notes:

  • Many of the bacteria are quite small relative to lymphocytes; Escherichia coli is 1-2 micrometers long x 0.25 micrometers in diameter.[19]
  • Epithelial cell nuclei & stromal cell nuclei may stain red.
  • Memory device: purple = positive.

Images

  • Gram positive cocci. (WC)

  • Gram positive rods - anthrax. (WC)

Luxol fast blue stain

  • Abbreviated LFB.

Use

  • Neuropathology, myelin stain.

Intepretation

  • Blue = myelinated fibers (contain lipoproteins), lipofuscin.[20]
    • Lack of blue (where it ought to be) = demyelination.
  • Purple = nerve cell (e.g. neuron).
  • Neutrophils = pink.

Ref.:[21]

Image

  • Globus pallidus and putamen - H&E-LFB. (WC)

  • Normal cortex - LFB only. (WC/jensflorian)

  • White-grey matter junction - LFB. (WC/jensflorian)

Giemsa stain

Use

Interpretation

  • Tissue is light blue/green.
  • Goblet cells are purple.[23]

Image:

Reticulin stain

Use

  • Liver biopsy, medical.
    • Demonstrates the reticular fibers (in cirrhosis the fibers are disrupted).
  • Before IHC, reticulin was used to differentiate sarcomas from carcinomas:[25]
    • Sarcomas have reticulin around each cell.
    • Carcinomas have reticulin around clusters of cells.
  • Commonly used in neuropathology.
    • In adenoma, reticulin highlights the lost acinar structure of normal pituitary gland.
    • Paraganglioma (Zellballen architecture)
    • Separating schwannoma (basement membrane around each cell) from meingioma in cerebellopontine angle.
    • Separating desmoplastic medulloblastoma from classic/anaplastic forms.


Interpretation

  • Black = reticular fibers.
  • Red = nuclei.

Notes:[26]

Images

  • Liver. Reticulin stain. (WC)

  • Hepatic adenoma. Reticulin stain. (WC)

  • Reticulin stain highlighting the "Zellballen" architecture of paraganglioma. (WC/jensflorian)

  • Reticulin staina round the "pale islands" of a desmoplastic medulloblastoma. (WC/jensflorian)

Cresyl violet stain

Use

  • Used at some places (e.g. SMH) to look for Helicobacter organisms.

Interpretation

  • Everything is shades of blue.
    • Helicobacter stains blue.

Prussian blue stain

  • AKA Perl's iron stain.

Use

  • Useful for iron and hemosiderin; useful for differentiating brown pigments (melanin, lipofuscin, tattoo pigment, hemosiderin).

Interpretation

  • Blue = iron.

Image:

Notes:

  • Described well by vetmed.vt.edu.[27]
  • DDx of brown pigment: Fontana-Masson (melanin), Kluver-Barrera stain (lipofuscin).

Images

  • Liver hemosiderosis. Prussian blue stain. (WC/Nephron)

  • CSF Siderophages in subarachnoid hemorrhage. (WC/jensflorian)

Kluver-Barrera stain

Combination of:

  • Luxol Fast Blue,
  • Cresyl Violet,
  • Special component for lipofuscin.

Use

  • Useful for differentiating brown pigments (melanin, lipofuscin, tattoo pigment, hemosiderin).
    • Stains lipofuscin.
  • Useful to detect demyelinating lesions in the CNS.

Notes:

  • PAS also stains lipofuscin and is more commonly available.

Interpretation

  • Blue pigmented granules = lipofuscin.

Notes:

  • Described well by vetmed.vt.edu.[28]
  • DDx of brown pigment: Fontana-Masson (melanin), Prussian blue stain (hemosiderin).

  • Encephalomyelitis disseminata (Klüver-Barrera)

Oil red O stain

Use

  • Stains adipose tissue.
  • Corroborate diagnosis of lipoid pneumonia.[29]
  • Screen for GERD - positive staining seen in macrophages from BAL specimens.[30]
  • Uncommon.

Notes:

  • Must be done on fresh tissue, i.e. it cannot be fixed in formalin.

Interpretation

  • Red = fat.

Images

  • Oil red O stain. (WC)

Warthin-Starry stain

Background:

  • Developed by a bunch of pathologists in Michigan to look for spirochetes.[31]

Use

  • Find spirochetes, e.g. syphilis (Treponema pallidum),[32] cat-scratch disease (Bartonella henselae).
  • Find Helicobacter spp., e.g. Helicobacter pylori -- Mount Sinai Hospital.[33]

Interpretation:[34]

  • Spirochetes - black.
  • Background - yellow.

Image

  • Helicobacter gastritis - Warthin-Starry stain. (WC)

Notes:

  • Considered a "dirty" stain - picks-up junk in the background.[35]

Dieterle stain

Considered a variant of the Steiner stain.[36]

Use

  • Find spirochetes, e.g. syphilis (Treponema pallidum),[37] donovan bodies (leishmaniasis),[38] Helicobacter pylori and Bartonella henselae (Cat-scratch disease).[39]

Interpretation

  • Spirochetes - black.
  • Background - yellow.

Images

  • Dieterle stain - T. pallidum. (WC)

www:

Bielschowsky stain

Abbreviated: Biel stain.

Use

  • Stains glial tissue, i.e. brain.
    • Demonstrates neurofibrillary tangles, senile plaques (as in Alzheimer's disease).

Interpretation

  • Black = axons, tangles, plaques.
  • Brown/dark brown = plaque, vascular amyloid.
  • Yellow/brown = other.

Ref.: [40]

Image

  • Bielschowsky stain. (WC/Nephron)

Mucicarmine stain

  • Stains some mucins... uses the dye carmine.

Use

  • Identify mucin.
  • Malignant cells that produce mucin... carcinomas.[41]

Interpretation

  • Carmine with metanil yellow and Weigert's Hematoxylin:[42]
    • Blue/black = nucleus.
    • Yellow = background.
    • Red = mucin.[43]

Images

www:

Alcian blue stain

General

  • Stains acidic mucin (pH=2.5); Alcian blue = Acidic.
    • A variant uses pH=1.0.[7]

Note:

  • Alcian blue (not otherwise specified) usu. refers to the pH=2.5.[44]

Use

Note:

  • Esophageal submucosal glands - alcian blue positive.

Interpretation

  • Blue = acidic mucins.[45]

Notes:

Image

Sodium sulphate-alcian blue stain

Sulfated alcian blue (abbreviated 'SAB) redirects here.

Use

Interpretation

  • Green = amyloid.[46]
    • Other things that are green: mast cells, mucoid degeneration, basophilic myofibre degeneration, califications.
  • Yellow = background.

Image:

Movat's stain

Use

Components

  • Acid fuchsin, alcian blue, crocein scarlet, elastic hematoxylin, and saffron.[48][49]

Interpretation of Movat stain

  • Black = nuclei and elastic fibers.
  • Yellow = collagen and reticular fibers.
  • Blue = mucin, ground substance.
  • Red (intense) = fibrin.
  • Red = muscle.

Reference: [49]

How to remember? A.: Primary colours (red, blue, yellow) + black.

Images

  • Cardiac amyloidosis - Movat stain. (WC/Nephron)

  • Cystic medial degeneration - Movat stain - low mag. (WC/Nephron)

  • Cystic medial degeneration - Movat stain - intermed. mag. (WC/Nephron)

  • Cystic medial degeneration - Movat stain - high mag. (WC/Nephron)

Masson's trichrome stain

General

  • Collagen vs. muscle.

Interpretation

  • Black = nuclei.
  • Red = muscle (smooth muscle actin).
  • Baby blue = collagen.
  • Blue gray = amyloid.[50]

Notes: [51]

Elastic trichrome stain

General:

  • "Elastic trichrome" is one important variant of Masson's trichrome.

Interpretation - as above in Masson's trichrome - plus:

  • Black = nuclei and elastin.

Mallory trichome stain

General

  • Collagen vs. muscle.
  • May be done with elastin.

Site

  • Kidney Bx (to assess for fibrosis).
  • Liver Bx (to assess for cirrhosis).
  • Cardiovascular/lung (to see differentiate the layers of the arteries, and arteries from veins).

Interpretation

  • Black = nuclei.
  • Red = muscle (smooth muscle actin).
  • Green = collagen.

Image

Haematoxylin orcein phyloxin saffron stain

  • Abbreviated HOPS.[52]
  • It should not be confused with the HPS stain.

Interpretation

  • Blue (haematoxylin) = nuclei.
  • Black (orcein) = elastin.
  • Red (phyloxin) = muscle.
  • Yellow (saffron) = collagen.

Jones stain

  • AKA PAS methenamine technique.[53]
  • AKA Methenamine PAS, abbreviated MPAS.

Use

  • Visualize basement membrane in kidney biopsies.

Interpretation

  • Black = basement membrane.
  • Blue = nuclei.
  • Pink = other structures/background.

Notes:[54]

Images

  • MN demonstrated with a MPAS - very high mag. (WC/Nephron)

  • MN demonstrated with a MPAS - very high mag. (WC/Nephron)

Hale's colloidal iron stain

Main article: Hale's colloidal iron stain

von Kossa stain

General

  • Type of silver stain.[55]

Use

  • Look for calcium.
  • Actually stains phosphates and carbonates as a surrogate for calcium.

Interpretation

  • Black = calcium.[7]

Toluidine blue stain

Use

Interpretation

  • Dark blue - nuclei, mast cell granules (darker than nuclei).
  • Light blue - cytoplasm.
  • Red/magneta - cartilage. (???)

Refs: looks a bit sketchy[58], [59]

Image

  • PCP stained with toluidine blue. (WC)

www:

Romanowsky stain

  • Occasionally spelled Romanowski.
  • Many variants of this stain exist.
  • Specimens are air-dried.

Interpretation:[60]

  • Red - RBCs, eosinophil granules.
  • Blue (basophilic) - lymphocyte cytoplasm.
  • Purple - nuclear chromatin, neutrophil granules, platelets.

Field stain

  • Variant of the Romanowsky stain for rapid processing.
  • Tends to "blow-up" cell, i.e. cells are larger vis-a-vis Pap stain.

Diff-Quik

Pronounced Diff-Quick.
  • Proprietary variant of Romanowsky stain.[61]

Uses:

Images

  • Lung adenocarcinoma - DQ - high mag. (WC)

  • Lung adenocarcinoma - DQ - very high mag. (WC)

  • Lung SmCC - DQ - very high mag. (WC)

  • Lung SmCC - DQ - extremely high mag. (WC)

Wright stain

  • A variant of the Romanowsky stain; popular in North American.

Use:

  • Blood films.

May-Grünwald-Giemsa stain

  • A variant of the Romanowsky stain; popular in Europe.
  • Abbreviated MGG.

Use:

  • Blood films.
  • Cytopathology.

Papanicolaou stain

  • Abbreviated Pap stain.
Main article: Papanicolaou stain

Fontana-Masson stain

  • AKA Masson-Fontana stain,[63] Fontana-Masson stain for melanin, melanin stain.
Main article: Fontana-Masson stain

Schmorl's stain

  • Stains melanin.
    • Similar to Fontana-Masson stain.

Notes:[64]

Martius scarlet blue stain

General

  • Stains connective tissue and fibrin.[65]
  • Abbreviated MSB.

Use:

Interpretation

  • Muscle and fibrin - red.
  • Nuclei = brown/black.
  • Collagen - blue.
  • Red blood cells - yellow.

Image:

Ref.:[66]

Picro-Mallory stain

General

  • Find fibrin.

Interpretation[67]

  • Fibrin = red.
  • Erythrocytes = yellow.
  • Connective tissue = blue.

Image:

Verhoeff-van Gieson stain

Verhoeff stain redirects here.
  • AKA Elastic van Gieson stain, abbreviated EVG.

General

  • Similar to Masson Trichrome & Verhoeff stain.[68]

Use:

  • Examine large blood vessels.[69]

Interpretation

  • Elastin = black.
  • Collagen = bright red.
  • Muscle = dull red.

  • EVG stain of a cerebral aneurysm. (WC/jensflorian)

Copper stain

General

Note:

  • Copper staining is a non-specific finding seen in many liver diseases; it is associated with impaired bile secretion.[70]

Interpretation

  • Copper = red granules.

Images:

Shikata stain

  • AKA Orcein stain for copper-protein.
  • AKA Shikata-Cu,[72]
  • AKA Shikata's orcein staining.[73]

General

  • Used in medical liver biopsies - stains sulfhydrl groups and identifies:

Interpretation

Features:[75]

  • Dark purple/brown = elastin fibres, HBsAg and copper-associated protein
  • Light purple = background
  • Red = nuclei (only if counter-stain used)

Gömöri Trichrome stain

  • Named after George Gömöri[76]

General

Interpretation

  • Dark green = muscle fibers.
  • Red = nuclei.
  • Bright red = mitochondria, red blood cells.

Images:

  • Ragged red fibers in MELAS, a mitochondrial disease. (WC)

  • Sickle cell nephropathy. (WC)

Miller stain

General

Interpretation

Staining:[77]

  • Black = elastin fibres, granules in mast cells.
  • Red = collagen.
  • Yellow = muscle, fibrin, erythrocytes.
  • Green/brown = nuclei.

Images

  • Miller stain showing lung tissue. (WC)

See also

References

  1. ↑ LAE. 13 July 2010.
  2. ↑ Woods GL, Walker DH (July 1996). "Detection of infection or infectious agents by use of cytologic and histologic stains". Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 9 (3): 382-404. PMC 172900. PMID 8809467. http://cmr.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8809467.
  3. ↑ Kovi J, Leifer C (July 1970). "Lipofuscin pigment accumulation in spontaneous mammary carcinoma of A/Jax mouse". J Natl Med Assoc 62 (4): 287–90. PMC 2611776. PMID 5463681. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2611776/pdf/jnma00512-0077.pdf.
  4. ↑ http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HISTHTML/MANUALS/PAS.PDF
  5. ↑ Qizilbash, A.; Young-Pong, O. (Jun 1983). "Alpha 1 antitrypsin liver disease differential diagnosis of PAS-positive, diastase-resistant globules in liver cells.". Am J Clin Pathol 79 (6): 697-702. PMID 6189389.
  6. ↑ http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HISTHTML/MANUALS/PASD.PDF
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Humphrey, Peter A; Dehner, Louis P; Pfeifer, John D (2008). The Washington Manual of Surgical Pathology (1st ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 682. ISBN 978-0781765275.
  8. ↑ URL: http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HISTHTML/MANUALS/FITES.PDF. Accessed on: 19 May 2011.
  9. ↑ Ilyas S, Youssef D, Chaudhary H, Al-Abbadi MA (September 2011). "Myocbacterium-avium intracellulare associated inflammatory pseudotumor of the anterior nasal cavity". Head Neck Pathol 5 (3): 296–301. doi:10.1007/s12105-011-0248-0. PMC 3173547. PMID 21327589. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3173547/.
  10. ↑ URL: http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/LUNGHTML/LUNG024.html. Accessed on: 19 May 2011.
  11. ↑ Kehl, KS.; Cicirello, H.; Havens, PL. (Feb 1995). "Comparison of four different methods for detection of Cryptosporidium species.". J Clin Microbiol 33 (2): 416-8. PMID 7536216.
  12. ↑ Ignatius, R.; Lehmann, M.; Miksits, K.; Regnath, T.; Arvand, M.; Engelmann, E.; Futh, U.; Hahn, H. et al. (Feb 1997). "A new acid-fast trichrome stain for simultaneous detection of Cryptosporidium parvum and microsporidial species in stool specimens.". J Clin Microbiol 35 (2): 446-9. PMID 9003613.
  13. ↑ URL: http://www.ihcworld.com/_protocols/special_stains/congo_red_bennhold.htm. Accessed on: 26 January 2012.
  14. ↑ URL: http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HISTHTML/MANUALS/CONGORED.PDF. Accessed on: 4 December 2010.
  15. ↑ St. Michael's Hospital - Stains Handout.
  16. ↑ URL: http://www.atsu.edu/faculty/chamberlain/Website/pnebact.htm. Accessed on: 7 May 2013.
  17. ↑ URL: http://meded.ucsd.edu/isp/1999/CAP/legion.html. Accessed on: 7 May 2013.
  18. ↑ URL: http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HISTHTML/MANUALS/GRAM.PDF. Accessed on: 7 May 2013.
  19. ↑ URL: http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/slidesets/marslife/slide_27.html.
  20. ↑ MUN. 26 November 2010.
  21. ↑ http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HISTHTML/MANUALS/LFB.PDF
  22. ↑ URL: http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HISTHTML/STAINS/STAINS.html. Accessed on: April 6, 2009.
  23. ↑ URL: http://www.kennedy.ox.ac.uk/facilities/histology/histology-information. Accessed on: 17 August 2015.
  24. ↑ URL: http://amser.org/index.php?P=AMSER--ResourceFrame&resourceId=6018. Accessed on: 17 August 2015.
  25. ↑ MACKENZIE DH (March 1958). "Reticulin patterns in the diagnosis of carcinomas and sarcomas". Br. J. Cancer 12 (1): 14–9. PMC 2074006. PMID 13536209. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2074006/.
  26. ↑ http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HISTHTML/MANUALS/RETIC.PDF
  27. ↑ Prussian blue stain. URL:[http://education.vetmed.vt.edu/curriculum/VM8054/labs/Lab2/Examples/exprussb.htm. Accessed on: 5 May 2010.
  28. ↑ Kluver-Barrera stain. URL:http://education.vetmed.vt.edu/curriculum/VM8054/labs/Lab2/Examples/exkluvbarr.htm. Accessed on: 5 May 2010.
  29. ↑ Yampara Guarachi, GI.; Barbosa Moreira, V.; Santos Ferreira, A.; Sias, SM.; Rodrigues, CC.; Teixeira, GH. (2014). "Lipoid pneumonia in a gas station attendant.". Case Rep Pulmonol 2014: 358761. doi:10.1155/2014/358761. PMID 25374742.
  30. ↑ Hopkins, PM.; Kermeen, F.; Duhig, E.; Fletcher, L.; Gradwell, J.; Whitfield, L.; Godinez, C.; Musk, M. et al. (Aug 2010). "Oil red O stain of alveolar macrophages is an effective screening test for gastroesophageal reflux disease in lung transplant recipients.". J Heart Lung Transplant 29 (8): 859-64. doi:10.1016/j.healun.2010.03.015. PMID 20466562.
  31. ↑ URL: http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/warthin. Accessed on: 17 August 2010.
  32. ↑ URL: http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HISTHTML/STAINS/STAINS.html. Accessed on: April 6, 2009.
  33. ↑ http://www.dako.co.uk/index/prod_search/prod_products.htm?productareaid=41&baseprodidver=A224462007
  34. ↑ http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HISTHTML/STAINS/STAIN029.html
  35. ↑ DB. 4 August 2010.
  36. ↑ URL: http://www.mayomedicallaboratories.com/test-catalog/Overview/80327. Accessed on: 8 August 2010.
  37. ↑ Humphrey, Peter A; Dehner, Louis P; Pfeifer, John D (2008). The Washington Manual of Surgical Pathology (1st ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 455. ISBN 978-0781765275.
  38. ↑ URL: http://www.mondofacto.com/facts/dictionary?Dieterle%27s+stain. Accessed on: 4 August 2010.
  39. ↑ URL: http://www.mayomedicallaboratories.com/test-catalog/Overview/80327. Accessed on: 8 August 2010.
  40. ↑ http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HISTHTML/MANUALS/BIELSCH.PDF
  41. ↑ Lefkowitch, Jay H. (2006). Anatomic Pathology Board Review (1st ed.). Saunders. pp. 681 (Q25). ISBN 978-1416025887.
  42. ↑ Humphrey, Peter A; Dehner, Louis P; Pfeifer, John D (2008). The Washington Manual of Surgical Pathology (1st ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 678. ISBN 978-0781765275.
  43. ↑ http://www.medschool.lsuhsc.edu/pathology/pathist/SURGPATH/special%20stains/assets/mucicarmine3.jpg
  44. ↑ URL: http://www.pathologyoutlines.com/topic/stainsalcianblue.html. Accessed on: 11 October 2012.
  45. ↑ URL: http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HISTHTML/MANUALS/ALCIAN.PDF. Accessed on: 20 December 2011.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Pomerance, A.; Slavin, G.; McWatt, J. (Jan 1976). "Experience with the sodium sulphate-Alcian Blue stain for amyloid in cardiac pathology.". J Clin Pathol 29 (1): 22-6. PMID 55419.
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