Rosa canina

Dog rose, Brier rose

RosaceaeFruitLeavesFlowersSpice/BeverageScore: 37/100Potential hazards — see below

foodlandscape architecturemedicinalornamentalseasoningsocial

iNaturalist · cc-by-nc-nd
(c) Mathieu Massaviol, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC-ND), uploaded by Mathieu Massaviol

iNaturalist · cc-by-nc
(c) Athina, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC), uploaded by Athina

iNaturalist · cc-by-sa
(c) Douglas Goldman, some rights reserved (CC BY-SA), uploaded by Douglas Goldman

What to Eat

Edible parts: Fruit, Flowers, Herb, Leaves - tea

The fruit can be eaten raw or cooked and makes excellent jams and syrups; the syrup is used as a nutritional supplement, particularly for babies. The fruit can also be dried for use as a tea. Frost softens and sweetens the flesh. The fruit is up to 30mm in diameter but has only a thin layer of flesh surrounding the many seeds — care should be taken when eating it (see known hazards). The seeds are a good source of vitamin E and can be ground and mixed with flour or added to foods as a supplement; be sure to remove the seed hairs first. Dried leaves can be used as a tea substitute, and one report also mentions their use as a coffee substitute. Petals are edible raw or cooked — the base may be bitter and is best removed. In China the petals are eaten as a vegetable and are also used to make a scented jam.

Known Hazards

Where to Find It

It is a temperate plant. It does best in dry loamy soils and an open sunny position. It suits hardiness zones 3-10. Tasmania Herbarium. Arboretum Tasmania.

Africa, Albania, Andorra, Argentina, Armenia, Asia, Australia, Azerbaijan, Balkans, Belarus, Bosnia, Britain, Bulgaria, Caucasus, Central Asia, Chile, Croatia, Czech Republic, Dominican Republic, Europe*, Falklands, Georgia, Greece, Haiti, Himalayas, Hungary, India, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Italy, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Mediterranean, Mexico, Middle East, Moldova, Morocco, Nepal, New Zealand, North Africa, North America, Norway, Portugal, Romania, Russia, San Marino, Scandinavia, Serbia, Sicily, Slovakia, Slovenia, South America, Spain, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Tasmania, Turkey, Türkiye, USA, Uzbekistan, West Indies,

Countries: Andorra, United Arab Emirates, Afghanistan, Antigua & Barbuda, Albania, Armenia, Angola, Argentina, Austria, Australia, Azerbaijan, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Barbados, Bangladesh, Belgium, Burkina Faso, Bulgaria, Bahrain, Burundi, Benin, Brunei, Bolivia, Brazil, Bahamas, Bhutan, Botswana, Belarus, Belize, Canada, Congo (DRC), Central African Republic, Congo (Republic), Switzerland, Cote d'Ivoire, Chile, Cameroon, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Cape Verde, Cyprus, Czechia, Germany, Djibouti, Denmark, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Algeria, Ecuador, Estonia, Egypt, Eritrea, Spain, Ethiopia, Finland, France, Gabon, United Kingdom, Grenada, Georgia, French Guiana, Ghana, Gambia, Guinea, Equatorial Guinea, Greece, Guatemala, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Honduras, Croatia, Haiti, Hungary, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, India, Iraq, Iran, Iceland, Italy, Jamaica, Jordan, Japan, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Cambodia, Comoros, St Kitts & Nevis, North Korea, South Korea, Kuwait, Kazakhstan, Laos, Lebanon, St Lucia, Liechtenstein, Sri Lanka, Liberia, Lesotho, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Latvia, Libya, Morocco, Monaco, Moldova, Montenegro, Madagascar, North Macedonia, Mali, Myanmar, Mongolia, Mauritania, Malta, Mauritius, Maldives, Malawi, Mexico, Malaysia, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Nicaragua, Netherlands, Norway, Nepal, Oman, Panama, Peru, Philippines, Pakistan, Poland, Puerto Rico, Portugal, Paraguay, Qatar, Romania, Serbia, Russia, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, Sudan, Sweden, Singapore, Slovenia, Slovakia, Sierra Leone, San Marino, Senegal, Somalia, Suriname, South Sudan, Sao Tome & Principe, El Salvador, Syria, Eswatini, Chad, Togo, Thailand, Tajikistan, Timor-Leste, Turkmenistan, Tunisia, Turkey, Trinidad & Tobago, Taiwan, Tanzania, Ukraine, Uganda, United States, Uruguay, Uzbekistan, St Vincent, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe

How to Identify

A prickly creeping shrub. It develops suckers. It grows 3 m high and spreads 3 m wide. The stems are prickly. The leaves are opposite and have leaflets along the stalk. The leaves have 5-7 leaflets. The flowers have a scent. The flowers are pale pink and occur singly. The fruit are orange-red hips.

Nutrition Score: 37/100

Part	Moisture	kJ	kcal	Protein	Vit A	Vit C	Iron	Zinc
Fruit	39.7	—	—	2.9	—	468	3.3	0.3

How to Grow

Succeeds in most soils. Grows well in heavy clay soils. Prefers a circumneutral soil and a sunny position with its roots in the shade. When grown in deep shade it usually fails to flower and fruit. Succeeds in wet soils but dislikes water-logged soils or very dry sites. Tolerates maritime exposure. The fruit attracts many species of birds, several gall wasps and other insects use the plant as a host A very polymorphic species, it is divided into a great number of closely related species by some botanists. The leaves, when bruised, have a delicious fragrance. The flowers are also fragrant. Grows well with alliums, parsley, mignonette and lupins. Garlic planted nearby can help protect the plant from disease and insect predation. Grows badly with boxwood. Hybridizes freely with other members of this genus. Plants in this genus are notably susceptible to honey fungus. Rose hips are typically harvested in late summer to early autumn, usually from August to October (Northern Hemisphere), depending on the species. Roses usually flower from late spring to early autumn, typically between May and September (Northern Hemisphere). Growth rates vary by species, but many roses can grow moderately fast, reaching maturity within 2 to 3 years, depending on the care and conditions provided. Some species of roses are self-fertile, while others require cross-pollination with different varieties for optimal fruit (hip) production.

Propagation: Rose seed often takes two years to germinate, as it may need a warm period following a cold one to mature the embryo and soften the seedcoat. To speed this up, scarify the seed and place it in damp peat at 27–32°c for 2–3 weeks until imbibed, then hold at 3°c for four months, by which time germination should begin. Alternatively, seed harvested green — fully developed but not yet dried on the plant — and sown immediately may germinate in late winter, though this method had not been fully tested as of 1988. Seed sown as soon as ripe in a cold frame sometimes germinates in spring, but may take 18 months. Stored seed should be sown as early as possible and stratified for 6 weeks at 5°c; germination may still take 2 years. Prick seedlings into individual pots when large enough to handle. Plant out in summer if over 25cm tall; otherwise overwinter in a cold frame and plant out in late spring. Half-ripe cuttings with a heel taken in July in a shaded frame, overwintered and planted out in late spring, give a high success rate. Hardwood cuttings of pencil-thick shoots, 20–25cm long, taken in early autumn and planted in a sheltered spot outdoors or in a cold frame, take up to 12 months to establish but normally succeed at a high rate. Suckers can be divided and replanted directly in their permanent positions during the dormant season. Layering takes 12 months.

Medicinal Uses

The petals, hips, and galls are astringent, carminative, diuretic, laxative, ophthalmic, and tonic. Hips are taken internally to treat colds, influenza, minor infectious diseases, scurvy, diarrhoea, and gastritis. A hip syrup is used as a pleasant flavouring in medicines and added to cough mixtures. A distilled water made from the plant is slightly astringent and used as a lotion for delicate skin. The seeds have been used as a vermifuge. The plant is used in Bach flower remedies, with the prescribing keywords 'Resignation' and 'Apathy'. The fruit is a very rich source of vitamins A, C, and E, flavonoids, and other bio-active compounds, and is also a fairly good source of essential fatty acids, which is unusual for a fruit. It is being investigated for its potential to reduce the incidence of cancer and to halt or reverse cancer growth. Vitamin C content in dog rose shells ranges from 0.2 to 2.4%.

Other Uses

Roses are beneficial in agroforestry systems, providing ground cover, attracting pollinators, and improving biodiversity. Plants form a dense, stock-proof hedge when trimmed and can also serve as windbreaks. The flowers are rich in nectar and pollen, making them excellent for attracting bees, butterflies, and other pollinators. The hips are a food source for birds and mammals, and the dense structure of the bushes provides shelter and nesting spots for birds and small animals. The rough stems, leaf litter, and dense growth also offer overwintering sites for beneficial invertebrates.

Wikipedia

Source ↗

Rosa canina, the dog rose, is a variable climbing, wild rose species native to Europe, northwest Africa, and western Asia.

Other Information

It is sold in local markets.

Notes

There are about 150 Rosa species and many cultivated varieties. It can be invasive. The fruit have high antioxidant capacity.

Names & Synonyms

Ask'ili, Common briar, Dikenbasi, Eglantier, Escalambrojo, Escaramujo, Giarrauta, Grata-tu, Grattacu, Grattacul, Gulab, Gulabax, Gularaz, Gulsilan, Gulsilav, Hundsrose, Iprim, Itburnu, Itburun, Jangli gulaab, Kaca, Kopekgulu, Kuin, Kusbasi, Kusburnu, Maces, Masreni, Masur, Navadni šipek, Okuzgotu, Peterlenga, Pibura, Pittellenga, Rosa selvatico, Rosa sarvaggia, Rosa silvestre, Shilan, Shipinka, Shipka, Silan, Silank, Sipurak, Sirgul, Steinnype, Sverboritki, Tabgha, Tapaculos, Tighfrt, Ward barri, Yabanigul

References (103)

Abbet, C., et al, 2014, Ethnobotanical survey on wild alpine food plants in Lower and Central Valais (Switzerland). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 151 (2014) 624–634
Aipeisova S.A., et al, 2019, Wild useful herbs of Aktobe Region (Western Kazakhstan). Ukrainian Journal of Ecology, 9(3), 329-331
Ari, S., et al, 2015, Ethnobotanical survey of plants used in Afyonkarahisar-Turkey. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 11:84
Bianchini, F., Corbetta, F., and Pistoia, M., 1975, Fruits of the Earth. Cassell. p 136 (As Rosa selvatica)
Bodkin, F., 1991, Encyclopedia Botanica. Cornstalk publishing, p 888
Bremness, L., 1994, Herbs. Collins Eyewitness Handbooks. Harper Collins. p 120
Bussman, R. W., et al, 2016, A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine.
Bussman, R. W. et al, 2017, Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge Vol. 16(1) pp 7-24
Bussman, R. W., et al, 2021, Unity in diversity—food plants and fungi of Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2021) 17:72 p 14
Cakir, E. A., 2017, Traditional knowledge of wild edible plants of Iğdır Province (East Anatolia, Turkey). Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2017;86(4):3568
Cerne, M., 1992, Wild Plants from Slovenia used as Vegetables. Acta Horticulturae 318
Ciocarlan, N. & Ghendov, V., 2015, Ethnobotanical and Ecological Studies of Wild Edible Plants from Bugeac Steppe, Republic of Moldova. Journal of EcoAgriTourism. Cailta terra Vol. 11(2):
Cruz, I. M., et al, 2015, Edible fruits and seeds in the State of Mexico. Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Agricolas. Vol. 6. Num. 2 pp 331-346
Cundall, P., (ed.), 2004, Gardening Australia: flora: the gardener's bible. ABC Books. p 1213
Curtis, W.M., 1956, The Students Flora of Tasmania Vol 1 p 174
Dashorst, G.R.M., and Jessop, J.P., 1998, Plants of the Adelaide Plains & Hills. Botanic Gardens of Adelaide and State Herbarium. p 74
Demir, I. & Ayaz, N., 2022, Wild edible plants contributing to the traditional foods of Mardin (Turkey) Province. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge Vol 21(3), July 2022, pp 569-582
Denes, A., et al, 2012, Wild plants used for food by Hungarian ethnic groups living in the Carpathian Basin. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 81 (4): 381-396
Dogan, A. & Tuzlaci, E., 2015, Wild Edible Plants of Pertek (Tunceli-Turkey). Marmara Pharmaceutical Journal 19: 126-135
Dogan, Y., et al, 2004, The Use of Wild Edible Plants in Western and Central Anatolia (Turkey). Economic Botany 58(4) pp. 684-690
Dzhangaliev, A. D., et al, 2003, The Wild Fruit and Nut Plants of Kazakhstan, Horticultural Reviews, Vol. 29. pp 305-371
Egea, I., et al., 2010, Six Edible Wild fruits as potential Antioxidant Additives or Nutritional Supplements. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 65:121-129
Ertug, F., 2000, An Ethnobotanical Study in Central Anatolia (Turkey). Economic Botany Vol. 54. No. 2. pp. 155-182
Ertug, F, Yenen Bitkiler. Resimli Türkiye Florası -I- Flora of Turkey - Ethnobotany supplement
Facciola, S., 1998, Cornucopia 2: a Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications, p 206
Flowerdew, B., 2000, Complete Fruit Book. Kyle Cathie Ltd., London. p 174
Galalaey, A. M. K., et al, 2021, Ethnobotanical study of some wild edible plants in Hujran Bason, Kurdistan Region of Iraq. ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences. Salahaddin University-Erbil p 28
Geraci, A., et al, 2018, The wild taxa utilized as vegetables in Sicily (Italy): a traditional component of the Mediterranean diet. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2018) 14:14
Ghanimi, R., et al, 2022, Ethnobotanical study on wild edible plants traditionally used by Messiwa people, Morocco. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 18:16
Girard, N. J., 2020, Sustainable Foraging of Wild Edible Plants in Norway. A Biocultural Approach. M. Sc. thesis Norwegian University. p 134
Gonzalez, J. A., et al, 2011, The consumption of wild and semi-domesticated edible plants in the Arribes del Duero (Salamanca-Zamora, Spain): an ananalysis of traditional knowledge. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 58:991-1006
Gunes, S. et al, 2018, Survey of wild food plants for human consumption in Karaisali (Adana-Turkey). Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. Vol. 17(2), April 2018, pp 290-298
Hancer, C. K., et al, 2020, Traditional Knowledge of Wild Edible Plants of Biga (Çanakkale), Turkey. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae / 2020 / Volume 89 / Issue 1 / Article 8914
Hedrick, U.P., 1919, (Ed.), Sturtevant's edible plants of the world. p 572
Hibbert, M., 2002, The Aussie Plant Finder 2002, Florilegium. p 254
http://www.botanic-gardens-ljubljana.com/en/plants
Hussey, B.M.J., Keighery, G.J., Cousens, R.D., Dodd, J., Lloyd, S.G., 1997, Western Weeds. A guide to the weeds of Western Australia. Plant Protection Society of Western Australia. p 209
Huxley, A. (Ed.), 1977, The Encyclopedia of the Plant Kingdom. Chartweil Books. p 228
Irving, M., 2009, The Forager Handbook, A Guide to the Edible Plants of Britain. Ebury Press p 275
Janaćković, P. et al, 2019, Traditional knowledge on plant use from Negotin Krajina (Eastern Serbia): An ethnobotanical study. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge Vol 18 (1), pp 25-33
John, L., & Stevenson, V., 1979, The Complete Book of Fruit. Angus & Robertson p 257
Kargioglu, M., et al, 2008, An Ethnobotanical Survey of Inner-West Anatolia, Turkey. Human Ecology 36:763-777
Kargioglu, M. et al, 2010, Traditional Uses of Wild Plants in the Middle Aegean Region. Human Ecology 38:429-450
Kayabasi, N. P., et al, 2018, Wild edible plants and their traditional use in the human nutrition in Manyas (Turkey). Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. Vol. 17(2), April 2018, pp 299-306
Kermath, B. M., et al, 2014, Food Plants in the Americas: A survey of the domesticated, cultivated and wild plants used for Human food in North, Central and South America and the Caribbean. On line draft. p 753
Khojimatov, O. K. et al, 2015, Some wild growing plants in traditional foods of Uzbekistan. Journal of Ethnic Foods. 2 (2015) 25-28
Kiple, K.F. & Ornelas, K.C., (eds), 2000, The Cambridge World History of Food. CUP p 1844
Kizilarslan, C. & Ozhatay, N., 2012, An ethnobotanical study of the useful and edible plants of İzmit. Marmara Pharmaceutical Journal 16: 134-140, 2012.
Kremer, B.P., 1995, Shrubs in the Wild and in Gardens. Barrons. p 176
Kybal, J., 1980, Herbs and Spices, A Hamlyn Colour Guide, Hamlyn Sydney p 168
Lazarides, M. & Hince, B., 1993, Handbook of Economic Plants of Australia, CSIRO. p 206
Lentini, F. and Venza, F., 2007, Wild food plants of popular use in Sicily. J Ethnobiol Ethnomedicine. 3: 15
Licata, M., et al, 2016, A survey of wild plant species for food use in Sicily (Italy) – results of a 3-year study in four Regional Parks. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 12:12
Low, T., 1992, Bush Tucker. Australia’s Wild Food Harvest. Angus & Robertson. p 73
Luczaj, L., 2012, Ethnobotanical review of wild edible plants of Slovakia. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 81(4):245-255
Luczaj, L. et al, 2012, Wild food plant use in 21st century Europe: the disappearance of old traditions and the search for new cuisines involving wild edibles. Acta Soc Bot Pol 81(4):359–370
Luczaj, L., et al, 2015, Wild food plants and fungi used by Ukrainians in the western part of the Maramureş region in Romania. Acta Soc Bot Pol 84(3):339–346
Mabey, R., 1973, Food for Free. A Guide to the edible wild plants of Britain, Collins. p 150, 166
Marinelli, J. (Ed), 2004, Plant. DK. p 467
Masoodi, H. U. R. & Sundriyal, R. C., 2020, Richness of non-timber forest products in Himalayan communities—diversity, distribution, use pattern and conservation status. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 16:56
Mattalia, G., et al, 2012, Traditional uses of wild food and medicinal plants among Brigasc, Kye ́, and Provenc ̧al communities on the Western Italian Alps. Genet Resour Crop Evol. Springer
Michael, P., 2007, Edible Wild Plants and Herbs. Grub Street. London. p 181
Miskoska-Milevska, E. et al, 2020, Traditional uses of wild edible plants in the Republic of North Macedonia. PHYTOLOGIA BALCANICA 26(1): 155–162, Sofia, 2020 p 159
Mukemre, M., et al, 2016, Survey of wild food plants for human consumption in villages of Catak, (Van-Turkey), Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. Vol. 15(2) pp. 183-191
Nanagulyan, S., et al, 2020, Wild plants and fungi sold in the markets of Yerevan (Armenia). Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 16:26
Nathan, A., & Wong Y Chee, 1987, A Guide to Fruits and Seeds, Singapore Science Centre. p 101
Nebel, S., Pieroni, A. & Heinrich, M., 2006, Ta cho`rta: Wild edible greens used in the Graecanic area in Calabria, Southern Italy. Appetite 47 (2006) 333–342
Nedelcheva A., 2013, An ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants in Bulgaria. EurAsian Journal of BioSciences 7, 77-94
Oran, S. A. S., 2015, Selected Wild Aromatic Plants in Jordan. International Journal of Medicinal Plants. Photon 108 (2015) 686-699
Özdemir, E. and Kültür, S., 2017, Wild Edible Plants of Savaştepe District (Balıkesir, Turkey), Marmara Pharm J 21/3: 578-589
Paczkowska, G . & Chapman, A.R., 2000, The Western Australian Flora. A Descriptive Calatogue. Western Australian Herbarium. p 512
Pardo-de-Santayana, M., et al, 2005, The gathering and consumption of wild edible plants in the Campoo (Cantabria, Spain). International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 56(7): 529-542
Pardo-de-Santayana, M., et al, 2007, Traditional knowledge of wild edible plants used in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal): a comparative study. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2007, 3:27
Pasta, S., et al, 2020, An Updated Checklist of the Sicilian Native Edible Plants: Preserving the Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Century-Old Agro-Pastoral Landscapes. Frontiers in Plant Science. Volume 11|Article 388
Pieroni, A., 1999, Gathered wild food plants in the Upper Valley of the Serchio River (Garfagnana), Central Italy. Economic Botany 53(3) pp 327-341
Pieroni, A., 2001, Evaluation of the Cultural Significance of Wild Food Botanicals traditionally Consumed in Northwestern Tuscany, Italy, Journal of Ethnobiology 21(1):89-104
Pieroni A, Nebel S, Santoro RF, Heinrich M., 2005, Food for two seasons: culinary uses of non-cultivated local vegetables and mushrooms in a south Italian village. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 56(4):245-72
Pieroni, A.,& Giusti, M. E., 2009, Alpine Ethnobotany in Italy: Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 5:32
Pieroni, A. et al, 2013, One century later: the folk botanical knowledge of the last remaining Albanians of the upper Reka Valley, Mount Korab, Western Macedonia. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 9:22
Pieroni, A. & Soukand, R., 2017, The disappearing wild food and medicinal plant knowledge in a few mountain villages of North-Eastern Albania. Journal of Applied Botany and Food Quality 90, 58 - 67
Pieroni, A., et al, 2020, Wild food plants traditionally gathered in central Armenia: archaic ingredients or future sustainable foods? Environment, Development and Sustainability. Springer p 10
Plants for a Future database, The Field, Penpol, Lostwithiel, Cornwall, PL22 0NG, UK. http://www.scs.leeds.ac.uk/pfaf/
Plants of Haiti Smithsonian Institute http://botany.si.edu/antilles/West Indies
Polat, R., et al, 2015, Survey of wild food plants for human consumption in Elazig (Turkey). Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. Vol. 1(1): 69-75
Polat, R., et al, 2017, Survey of wild food plants for human consumption in Bingol, (Turkey). Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. Vol. 16(3) July 2017, pp. 378-384
Redzic, S. J., 2006, Wild Edible Plants and their Traditional Use in the Human Nutrition in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 45:189-232
Redzic, S., 2010, Use of Wild and Semi-Wild Edible Plants in Nutrition and Survival of People in 1430 Days of Siege of Sarajevo during the War in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992–1995). Coll. Antropol 34 (2010) 2:551-570
Rexhepi, B., et al, 2018, Ethnobotanical Study of Wild Edible Plants in Pelagonia Region (Southwestern Macedonia) International Journal of Advances in Science Engineering and Technology, Vol. 6 (1) p 57
Rivera, C., et al, 2005, The Ethnobotanical Study of Local Mediterranean Food Plants as Medicinal Resources in Southern Spain. Journal of Physiologyand Pharmacology. 56, Suppl. 1, 97-114
Senkardes, I & Tuzlaci, E., 2016, Wild Edible Plants of Southern Part of Nevsehir inTurkey. Marmara Pharmaceutical Journal 20:34-43
Sfikas, G., 1984, Trees and shrubs of Greece. Efstathiadis Group. Athens. p 84
Shikov, A. N. et al, 2017, Traditional and Current Food Use of Wild Plants Listed in the Russian Pharmacopoeia. Frontiers in Pharmacology. Vol. 8 Article 841
Simkova, K. et al, 2014, Ethnobotanical review of wild edible plants used in the Czech Republic. Journal of Applied Botany and Food Quality 88, 49-67
Skinner, G. & Brown, C., 1981, Simply Living. A gatherer's guide to New Zealand's fields, forests and shores. Reed. p 51
Sp. pl. 1:491. 1753
Tasmanian Herbarium Vascular Plants list p 51
Tardio, J., et al, Ethnobotanical review of wild edible plants in Spain. Botanical J. Linnean Soc. 152 (2006), 27-71
Upson, R., & Lewis R., 2014, Updated Vascular Plant Checklist and Atlas for the Falkland Islands. Falklands Conservation and Kew.
van Wyk, B., 2005, Food Plants of the World. An illustrated guide. Timber press. p 325
Vari, A., et al, 2020, Berries, greens, and medicinal herbs—mapping and assessing wild plants as an ecosystem service in Transylvania (Romania). Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:13
Wild Edible Plants in Lebanon. Promoting dietary diversity in poor communities in Lebanon. http://www.wildedibleplants.org/
Yesil, Y., et al, 2019, Wild edible plants in Yeşilli (Mardin-Turkey), a multicultural area. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:52
Yesil, Y., et al, 2019, Traditional knowledge of wild edible plants in Hasankeyf (Batman Province, Turkey). Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae. 88(3):3633